Friday, July 4, 2025

A Comprehensive Study Guide to the Upanishads and Vedanta


This study guide is designed to help you review and deepen your understanding of the provided texts on the Upanishads and Vedanta philosophy. It covers key concepts, practices, and philosophical distinctions discussed in the materials.

I. Core Concepts and Principles

A. Nature of Reality (Brahman and Atman)

  1. Brahman: The ultimate reality, the absolute, all-pervading consciousness. Described as indivisible (akhaṇḍa), pure existence-consciousness-bliss (saccidānandam), and beyond all attributes (nirguṇa). It is the material and efficient cause of the universe.

  2. Atman: The individual self, which is ultimately identical with Brahman. The goal of Vedantic inquiry is to realize this non-duality.

  3. Tat Tvam Asi: A key Mahavakya (great utterance) meaning "That Thou Art," emphasizing the identity of the individual self (Atman) with the ultimate reality (Brahman).

B. Maya and Avidya (Illusion and Ignorance)

  1. Maya: The cosmic illusion or power of Brahman that creates the apparent world. It is neither real nor unreal, but an inexplicable power that veils reality and projects the world.

  2. Avidya (Ignorance): Individual ignorance, which is a state of delusion where one misidentifies with the body, mind, and senses, failing to recognize the true self as Brahman. It is the cause of suffering and the cycle of birth and death.

  3. Adhyasa (Superimposition): The erroneous superimposition of the self (Atman) onto non-self (Anatman) elements like the body, senses, and mind, and vice versa. This is the root cause of illusion and suffering.

  4. Jagrat (Waking State): The state where the mind is solid and concrete, perceiving the external world through the senses.

  5. Swapna (Dream State): The state where the mind is fluid, creating its own world of experiences.

  6. Sushupti (Deep Sleep State): A state where the mind is vaporized, and there are no thoughts or experiences, only a profound sense of peace. This is said to be very similar to samadhi, but without awareness.

  7. Samadhi (Enlightenment/Meditative Absorption): A state of profound absorption where one transcends the mind and realizes the true self.

  8. Savikalpa Samadhi: Meditative absorption with distinctions, where there is still a subtle awareness of duality (e.g., of the meditator and the object of meditation).

  9. Nirvikalpa Samadhi: Meditative absorption without distinctions, where the mind is completely dissolved into the non-dual reality of Brahman.

C. Koshas (Sheaths)

  1. Annamaya Kosha: The food sheath, referring to the physical body.

  2. Pranamaya Kosha: The vital air/energy sheath, relating to life force.

  3. Manomaya Kosha: The mind sheath, encompassing thoughts, emotions, and volition.

  4. Vijnanamaya Kosha: The intellect sheath, related to understanding and discrimination.

  5. Anandamaya Kosha: The bliss sheath, the subtlest and closest to the Atman, experienced in deep sleep.

D. Karma and Rebirth

  1. Karma: Actions, which produce results that must be experienced. Both good and bad actions bind one to the cycle of rebirth.

  2. Sanchita Karma: Accumulated past actions, the total store of karma from all previous lives.

  3. Prarabdha Karma: The portion of sanchita karma that is ripe for fruition and is currently being experienced in this life.

  4. Kriyamana Karma: New actions being performed in the present life, which will bear fruit in the future.

  5. Jivanmukta: One who is liberated while still alive, having realized the self and transcended the influence of karma, though still experiencing prarabdha karma.

  6. Videhamukta: One who achieves liberation at the time of death, when the body falls away and all karma is exhausted.

II. Paths and Practices

A. Fourfold Means to Liberation (Sadhana Chatushtaya)

  1. Nitya-Anitya Vastu Viveka (Discrimination between Permanent and Impermanent): The ability to discern between the eternal, unchanging reality (Brahman) and the ephemeral, changing world (Maya).

  2. Ihamutra Phala Bhoga Viraga (Renunciation of the Fruits of Actions, Here and Hereafter): Dispassion towards all worldly and heavenly pleasures, recognizing their transient nature.

  3. Shama-Dama-Uparati-Titiksha-Samadhana-Shraddha (Sixfold Virtues):

    1. Shama: Control of the mind.

    2. Dama: Control of the external senses.

    3. Uparati: Cessation of external activities or withdrawal from sense objects.

    4. Titiksha: Endurance of duality (pain/pleasure, heat/cold, etc.) without complaint.

    5. Samadhana: Single-pointedness of mind or concentration.

    6. Shraddha: Faith in the guru and scriptures.

  4. Mumukshutva (Desire for Liberation): Intense longing for freedom from the cycle of birth and death.

B. Three Steps to Knowledge (Jnana Marga)

  1. Shravanam (Listening/Hearing): Listening to the teachings of Vedanta from a qualified guru, focusing on the true nature of Brahman and Atman.

  2. Mananam (Reflection/Contemplation): Deeply reflecting upon the heard teachings, resolving doubts, and intellectually understanding the non-dual truth.

  3. Nididhyasanam (Meditation/Assimilation): Constant and sustained meditation on the truth of Brahman-Atman, leading to direct experience and realization.

C. Yoga Practices

  1. Pranayama: Breath control, a technique to regulate the life force (prana) and stabilize the mind. It involves inhalation (rechaka), retention (kumbhaka), and exhalation (puraka).

  2. Kundalini Jagriti: The awakening of Kundalini energy, described as a coiled serpent power at the base of the spine, which, when awakened, ascends through the chakras, leading to spiritual experiences and liberation.

III. Key Figures and Texts

  1. Upanishads: Ancient philosophical texts forming the end part of the Vedas, considered the foundation of Vedanta.

  2. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad: Explores the nature of Atman and Brahman. The dialogue between Yajnavalkya and Gargi, and Yajnavalkya and Maitreyi, highlights the search for the ultimate reality.

  3. Taittiriya Upanishad: Discusses the five koshas (sheaths) and the path to realizing the Anandamaya Kosha (bliss sheath) as Brahman.

  4. Chandogya Upanishad: Contains the famous "Tat Tvam Asi" (That Thou Art) mahavakya.

  5. Vedantasara: A classical treatise on Advaita Vedanta by Sadananda Saraswati, summarizing the essence of Vedanta philosophy.

  6. Osho (Rajneesh): A modern spiritual teacher whose discourses on the Upanishads emphasize direct experience, transcending the ego, and understanding the nature of desire and illusion. He often uses metaphors and personal anecdotes to illustrate complex philosophical ideas.

  7. Shankara (Adi Shankaracharya): A central figure in Advaita Vedanta, known for his commentaries on the Upanishads, Brahmasutras, and Bhagavad Gita, firmly establishing the non-dualistic philosophy.

  8. Yajnavalkya: A prominent sage in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, known for his profound philosophical dialogues and teachings on the Atman.

  9. Gargi Vachaknavi: A female sage who challenges Yajnavalkya in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, demonstrating deep philosophical inquiry.

  10. Sarmad: A Sufi mystic who was executed for declaring "Anallahaq" (I am the Truth/Brahman), reflecting the ultimate realization of oneness.

  11. Ramakrishna Paramahamsa: A 19th-century Indian mystic and yogi who experienced profound spiritual states and emphasized the unity of all religions. His interactions with Sarada Devi illustrate a transcended form of love and relationship.

  12. Gurdjieff: A 20th-century spiritual teacher who emphasized self-observation and inner work, with practices designed to dismantle the ego, similar to Osho's emphasis on dropping concern for others' opinions.

IV. Philosophical Distinctions and Debates

  1. Chaarvaka Philosophy: A materialist school of thought that denies the existence of the soul, afterlife, and supernatural phenomena, asserting that reality is limited to what can be perceived by the senses.

  2. Difference between Samadhi and Sushupti: While both are states without thought, Samadhi is a conscious and aware state of merging with Brahman, whereas Sushupti (deep sleep) is an unconscious state of temporary peace. The key difference is the presence of "awareness" (Hosh).

  3. The Nature of Suffering: Suffering arises from the ego's desires and its attachment to transient things. Osho emphasizes that suffering is not caused by the external event itself, but by the ego's reaction and unwillingness to accept "what is."

  4. The "Snake and Rope" Analogy (Rajjusarpanyaya): A classic Advaita Vedanta analogy used to explain Maya and Adhyasa. Just as a person mistakes a rope for a snake in dim light, the ignorant person superimposes the illusory world onto Brahman. The "snake" (illusion) is not truly born or destroyed; it is merely a misperception.

V. Practical Implications

  1. Dropping the Ego: A central theme in Osho's discourses, achieved by ceasing to seek validation from others and recognizing that one's identity is not defined by external roles or opinions.

  2. The Role of Desire: All desires, even for spiritual goals like heaven or moksha, keep the mind agitated and prevent the cessation of thought. True liberation comes when all desires are dropped, leading to a state of being rather than doing.

  3. Acceptance and Surrender: The path to liberation involves accepting reality as it is, without resistance or rejection. This is exemplified by the ideal of "Brahma bhava" (the state of Brahman) where everything is accepted.

  4. The Importance of Inner Transformation: Changing external circumstances will not lead to true happiness if the inner state of the individual remains unchanged. The focus should be on internal transformation rather than external escape.

Quiz: Ten Short-Answer Questions

Answer each question in 2-3 sentences.

  1. Explain the concept of Adhyasa as described in the texts.

  2. What is the primary difference between Sushupti (deep sleep) and Samadhi?

  3. Name and briefly describe two of the five Koshas.

  4. According to the texts, how does suffering arise, and what is its ultimate cause?

  5. What are the three steps of the Jnana Marga (path of knowledge) in Vedanta?

  6. How does Osho explain the process of "dropping the ego"?

  7. Define "Karma" and briefly explain the three types of Karma mentioned.

  8. What is the significance of the "Tat Tvam Asi" Mahavakya?

  9. Describe the "snake and rope" analogy and its relevance to understanding Maya.

  10. What is a Jivanmukta, and how do they differ from a Videhamukta?

Answer Key for Quiz

  1. Adhyasa is the erroneous superimposition of the self (Atman) onto non-self (Anatman) elements like the body, senses, and mind, and vice versa. It is described as the fundamental misunderstanding where one mistakenly believes "I am this body" or "this mind is mine," leading to the illusion of individuality and duality.

  2. The primary difference between Sushupti (deep sleep) and Samadhi is the presence of awareness or "Hosh." While both states are characterized by the absence of thought and a sense of peace, Sushupti is an unconscious state, whereas Samadhi is a fully conscious and aware absorption into the ultimate reality.

  3. Two of the five Koshas are: 

Annamaya Kosha: The food sheath, which refers to the physical body. It is the outermost and grossest layer, sustained by food.

Manomaya Kosha: The mind sheath, which encompasses thoughts, emotions, and volition. This sheath is responsible for desires and doubts. (Other possible answers include Pranamaya Kosha, Vijnanamaya Kosha, and Anandamaya Kosha)

  1. According to the texts, suffering arises not directly from external events, but from the ego's reaction and its unwillingness to accept "what is." It is rooted in the attachment to transient things and the desire for outcomes to be different from what they are, as exemplified by the idea that "pain is not caused by the injury, but by the idea that the injury should not have happened."

  2. The three steps of the Jnana Marga are:

    1. Shravanam: Listening attentively to the Vedantic teachings from a qualified guru to gain an initial understanding of Brahman.

    2. Mananam: Deeply reflecting on these teachings to resolve any intellectual doubts and solidify one's conceptual understanding.

    3. Nididhyasanam: Sustained meditation on the realized truth, leading to direct experience and assimilation of the non-dual reality.

  3. Osho explains the process of "dropping the ego" by suggesting one stops seeking approval or attention from others. He highlights that our ego is largely built on what others think of us, and by letting go of this external validation, one becomes "alone" and the false center of the ego dissipates.

  4. Karma refers to actions that produce results, binding an individual to the cycle of rebirth. The three types are:

    1. Sanchita Karma: The total accumulated store of karma from all past lives, yet to be experienced.

    2. Prarabdha Karma: The portion of sanchita karma that is currently ripening and being experienced in the present life.

    3. Kriyamana Karma: New actions being performed in the current life, which will create future consequences.

  5. "Tat Tvam Asi" (That Thou Art) is a foundational Mahavakya from the Chandogya Upanishad. Its significance lies in directly asserting the non-dual identity of the individual self (Atman) with the ultimate reality (Brahman), serving as a core statement for realizing one's true nature.

  6. The "snake and rope" analogy (Rajjusarpanyaya) illustrates the nature of Maya and Adhyasa. In dim light, a person might mistake a rope for a snake. The "snake" is an illusion, not truly born or destroyed. Similarly, the world appears real due to ignorance (Avidya) and superimposition (Adhyasa) on Brahman, which is the underlying reality, akin to the rope.

  7. A Jivanmukta is an individual who achieves liberation (realization of Brahman) while still living in the physical body. They are free from the effects of new karma, though they continue to experience the fruits of their "prarabdha" karma (karma destined for this life). A Videhamukta is one who attains liberation at the moment of death, when their physical body is shed and they fully merge with Brahman, completely free from the cycle of rebirth.

Essay Format Questions

  1. Discuss the Advaita Vedanta concept of Brahman as both the material and efficient cause of the universe. How do the Upanishads reconcile the transcendent and immanent aspects of Brahman?

The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, one of the oldest and most significant Upanishads, is fundamentally concerned with revealing the identity of the individual self (Atman) and Brahman. It is embedded in the Shukla Yajur Veda and is known for its profound and extensive philosophical teachings, aiming to eradicate ignorance (avidyā) and the cycle of Samsara. The text itself can be seen as a "veritable mine of wisdom".

Brahman as Both the Material and Efficient Cause of the Universe

The Upanishads, including the Brihadaranyaka, assert that Brahman is the Supreme Reality and the source of all existence. It is the ultimate ground and essence of all created things, from which everything emerges and into which everything ultimately collapses.

  1. Brahman as the Efficient Cause (Nimitta Karana): The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad implies that Brahman is the intelligent agent or orchestrator of creation. For instance, the Upanishad states that Brahman "desired that he should become many, that he should make of himself many forms," and then "meditated" and "created all things". This "Will-to-create" is an expression of the Universal Being. The texts refer to Brahman as Ishvara (God), who is the creator, preserver, and destroyer of the world. God is responsible for creating Brahma according to the law of karma, and then delegates the rest of creation to Brahma. The Upanishads declare that Brahman is omniscient and omnipotent, and these qualities are attributes of the cause from which the world proceeds. Brahman's knowledge is essential to Him, similar to how the sun's light is essential to the sun.

  2. Brahman as the Material Cause (Prakriti/Upādāna Karana): Beyond being just the efficient cause, Brahman is also depicted as the material cause – that out of which the universe is made. The Aitareya Upanishad, for example, states, "And this Self, who is pure consciousness, is Brahman. He is God, all gods; the five elements—earth, air, fire, water, ether; all beings... The reality behind all these is Brahman, who is pure consciousness".

    • Illustrations of Creation: The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad uses metaphors to describe this material causality without implying change in Brahman. It explains creation through the analogy of a spider ejecting its thread from its body, and fire emitting sparks, indicating that "all lives. All beings, all creatures spring from this Atman". This is the doctrine of emanation. Similarly, the Chandogya Upanishad mentions how one comes to know the underlying form of all clay from a single piece of clay, or all iron from a single piece of iron, demonstrating that the singular is informed by the collective, and each seemingly separate vessel participates in the totality of its substance.

    • Vivarta (Appearance) vs. Parinama (Transformation): While Maya (or Prakriti) is described as the parinami karanam (changing cause) that undergoes transformation to produce manifest names and forms, Brahman is the vivartha karanam (non-changing or changeless cause). The universe comes out of a mixture (Maya and Brahman) and resolves back into it, with the name-and-form part returning to Maya and the existence part belonging to Brahman. The creation is presented as a "mere appearance" (vivarta), or an "imaginary construction of Maya". The Upanishads emphasize that the mention of origin, continuity, and dissolution of the universe is only to strengthen the idea of Brahman being a homogeneous unity, not to assert these processes as actualities. This is a "phenomenal change of the One into the Many," which is not a real change but only phenomenal.

Therefore, Brahman is the omniscient, omnipotent cause from which proceed the beginning, maintenance, and destruction of the world of name-and-form, agents and enjoyers, and fruits of actions.

Reconciling the Transcendent and Immanent Aspects of Brahman

The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, along with other Upanishads, reconciles the seemingly contradictory transcendent and immanent aspects of Brahman through several key concepts:

  1. Para Brahman (Transcendent) and Apara Brahman (Immanent/Saguna): The Upanishads speak of a "higher (para) Brahman" which is formless, unmanifest, immortal, abiding, and transcendental, devoid of all attributes (Nirguna). Simultaneously, they refer to a "lower (apara) Brahman" that is formed, manifest, mortal, fleeting, and empirical, often conceived as personal God (Ishvara). It is crucial to understand that these are not two Brahmans; rather, it is one Brahman viewed from different standpoints – indeterminate from a transcendental view and determinate from an empirical view. Brahman is both Nirguna (without qualities) and yet possesses qualities; it is described as "Anejaḍ Ekam," the One who moveth not, but also as moving as mobile and multiple Prakriti.

  2. Simultaneous Immanence and Transcendence: The Upanishads continuously emphasize that Brahman is both This and That. It is the "Truth of truth" (Satyasya Satyam), the underlying reality of even what we perceive as real.

    • Transcendent aspect: Brahman is described as pure consciousness, beyond human conception, thoughts, words, and senses. It is "other than the known and... over the unknown". It is "without interior or exterior", and beyond time, space, and causality.

    • Immanent aspect: Despite its transcendence, Brahman has an intimate relation with all creation, is in contact with all things, and controls all things. It is the "innermost Self of all" (Antaryamin). Brahman "entered into everything" it created. The universe is not really God's creation, but His manifestation or incarnation. Everything exists within Brahman as an eternal potential. The individual self (Atman) is an extension of the Self (Brahman), and the Self is said to be existing in the form of individual souls (Jivas).

  3. The Role of Maya: Maya is the power (Shakti) of the self-luminous Atman, hidden by its own attributes, which governs all causes including time and the individual Self. It is the "primordial and indefinable Prakriti". Maya is the apparent reality that conceals the true, unitary Self and creates the illusion of duality. However, Maya is not an independent principle; it is dependent on Ishvara. It is the source of names and forms, and the world appears to be born due to Maya. Creation, as a process, is often explained as Brahman envisaging Maya, where duality begins and forms differentiate, but these are ultimately phenomenal and not absolute realities. Maya is eternal like Brahman, but it is the "conditioned Brahman" which rests on the "unconditioned".

  4. The Purna (Full) Concept: The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad beautifully expresses this reconciliation with the verse: "That is the Full, this is the Full. The Full has come out of the Full. If we take the Full from the Full Only the Full remains.". "Full" (purna) here means the totality of being: Brahman. This means that the Transcendent (Nirguna Brahman) is total Reality, and so is the Immanent (Saguna Brahman). The Unmanifest is all that is, and so is the Manifest. The Immanent emanates from the Transcendent, and whether one focuses on the Immanent or Transcendent, both are perceived as All, because they are one and the same. This unity is not a negation of Prakriti or prana, but an acknowledgment of their intimate reality with the Self.

In essence, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad asserts a spiritualistic monism or absolute Idealism, where the one Reality (Brahman/Atman) is the cause and essence of everything, appearing in diverse ways through Maya, yet remaining ultimately unchanged and non-dual. The goal for individuals is to realize this unity, recognizing that apparent duality is an illusion.


  1. Analyze the role of Avidya (ignorance) and Adhyasa (superimposition) as the root causes of human suffering and the cycle of rebirth according to the Vedantic texts. How is this understanding crucial for the path to liberation?

In Advaita Vedanta, human suffering and the cycle of rebirth (samsara) are fundamentally rooted in two interconnected concepts: Avidya (ignorance) and Adhyasa (superimposition). Understanding these concepts is paramount for anyone seeking the path to liberation (moksha).

Avidya (Ignorance) as the Root Cause of Suffering and Rebirth

Avidya is defined as ignorance, or nescience, specifically self-ignorance, which means failing to understand one's true nature as the purna Atma (the full Self). It is the root cause of bondage, and it ties the individual self to the empirical life of birth and death. The Upanishads reveal that all sorrows stem from a partial vision of things, and complete happiness is unattainable as long as one lacks a total vision of reality.

Key aspects of Avidya and its consequences include:

  • Concealment of Truth: Avidya acts as a veil that separates the mind, body, and life from their true source, Sachchidananda (Existence-Consciousness-Bliss). It is the apparent reality (Maya) that conceals the true, unitary Self and creates the illusion of duality [2, My previous response].

  • Cause of Individuality and Duality: Avidya is the cause of individuality (ahamkara), producing the body, sense-organs, mind (manas), intellect (buddhi), and ego (ahamkara) that constitute a person's individual existence. It leads one to believe that everything seen with the eyes is real, causing a focus on external objects rather than the hidden Reality within. This creates the delusion of separation between the individual self (Jiva) and the universal Self (Brahman).

  • Perpetuation of Karma and Samsara: Avidya directly leads to desire (kama) and action (karma). The feeling of "doership" (kartā) stems from ignorance, and actions performed under this ignorance bind the individual to the cycle of transmigration. The "great destruction" (mahati vinashtih) is characterized by interminable birth and death, accompanied by pains, sorrows, and fears in the material world. This is a "vicious circle of suffering" from which the soul cannot free itself through mere experiences of births and deaths.

  • Manifestation of Suffering: The various miseries that afflict all creatures, such as bodily diseases (Adhibhautika), problems from other creatures (Adhidaivika), and hurdles in spiritual well-being (Adhyatmika), are consequences of Avidya. These are not problems themselves but situations perceived as problems due to misunderstanding. Suffering arises from one's reaction to things, not from the things themselves.

Adhyasa (Superimposition) as the Root Cause

Adhyasa, or superimposition, is the mechanism through which Avidya operates, creating false notions where none exist. It involves the erroneous attribution of qualities to something other than its true nature.

  • False Identification with the Body: The most significant superimposition is the identification of the Self with the body-mind complex, which is neither the true Self nor belongs to it. This includes the superimposition of caste, stage of life, age, and notions about a man's relations with others, his body, senses, and internal organ onto the Self. This natural, beginningless, and endless superimposition, characterized by erroneous notions, leads everyone to suppose themselves to be the agent and enjoyer of actions.

  • Creation of Duality: Adhyasa generates the apparent distinctions (bheda) that make the world seem plural and real. It makes the Self appear as separated into a knower, knowledge, and known.

  • Consequences: The "state of Jiva and that of the world" are products of superimposition. The mind, through latent impressions (vasanas) and persistent imagination, unexamined, grasps objects and looks upon them as reality, leading the ignorant person to see the spirit wrongly. This false impression of worldly life is the root of bondage.

The Crucial Role of this Understanding for Liberation

The understanding of Avidya and Adhyasa is absolutely crucial for the path to liberation (moksha) because moksha is not about gaining something new, but about the removal of ignorance and the realization of one's already existing true Self. The Advaitin view asserts that liberation is simply being, knowing, and experiencing one's true Self.

Key aspects of how this understanding leads to liberation:

Knowledge as the Antidote: Perfect knowledge (vidya or jnana) is the natural and direct opposite and destroyer of Avidya. It does not require action to destroy ignorance. When knowledge of reality arises, ignorance perishes, and with it, false awareness.

Realization of Non-Duality: The core teaching of the Upanishads is the unity of Atman and Brahman (Advaita), meaning there is no separation between them. When this identity is realized, "what delusion and what grief can there be for one who sees unity?". This realization is deemed to provide eternal liberation from bondages created by ignorance and delusion.

Dissolution of Karma and Desires: Self-knowledge destroys the very cause of actions. The microcosm, along with its causes, is dissolved in the supreme Self through the fire of knowledge. The destruction of latent impressions (vasanas) leads to liberation, as the mind, when free from desires, attains a "mindless state" which is the high place of liberation.

The Threefold Path of Knowledge: To achieve this liberating knowledge, Vedanta prescribes:

  1. Shravana (Listening): Listening to the teachings of Vedantic scriptures under the guidance of a qualified teacher (guru) to comprehend foundational truths about Atman, Brahman, and their unity.

  2. Manana (Reflection): Deep reflection on the teachings to resolve doubts and gain intellectual clarity, strengthening conviction in non-dual reality.

  3. Nididhyasana (Meditation): Sustained meditative contemplation to internalize knowledge and directly experience the unity of Atman and Brahman.

Beyond Duality and Suffering: Upon realizing the Self, which is non-attached, one transcends fear, and all grief ceases. The aim is to eliminate "I-ness" (ahamkara) and "mine-ness" (mamakara), along with attachment (raga) and aversion (dvesha), which are the biggest obstacles to spiritual growth and jivanmukti. The state of liberation is characterized by infinite bliss, eternal peace, and absolute freedom, signifying the dissolution of individuality.


  1. Compare and contrast the three states of consciousness (Jagrat, Swapna, Sushupti) as described in the texts. How do these states relate to the understanding of the mind and the ultimate goal of Samadhi?

In Vedantic texts, human experience is primarily analyzed through three conventional states of consciousness: Jagrat (waking), Swapna (dreaming), and Sushupti (deep sleep). These states are not merely physiological conditions but represent different levels of interaction between the individual self (Jiva) and reality. Understanding their nature is crucial for comprehending the role of the mind and the ultimate goal of liberation (moksha), which transcends these states.

Comparison and Contrast of the Three States of Consciousness

These three states are experienced by a single unchanging witness, the Self (Atman), which persists through all of them.

Jagrat (Waking State):

  • Description and Engagement: In the waking state, the Atman (individual consciousness) interacts with the external world through the gross body and its sense organs. The senses collect information, which the mind processes, issues instructions to organs of action, and stores in memory, sometimes referring non-routine matters to the intellect.

  • Associated Self: The Self associated with the waking state is called Visva (or Vishwa), who is the universal person in his gross nature, conscious of and enjoying external, gross objects. Visva is said to have its seat of experience in the right eye. At a macrocosmic level, the Viraat Purush (cosmic gross body) corresponds to Visva.

  • Nature of Experience: The physical world imposes inhibitions on the Atman. The first three stages of Yoga are described as being akin to the waking state.

  • Relation to Suffering: This state is where duality is most acutely experienced, leading to the perception of separate objects and the activities of the fourteen sensory organs, which are a material cause for differences in practice.

Swapna (Dreaming State):

  • Description and Engagement: In the dreaming state, consciousness withdraws from active involvement with the external world and its sense organs. However, the mind remains active at a subtle, subconscious level, operating through vital energies (Pranas) and tubular ducts (Naadis) within the body. The Self makes the body sleep but remains self-luminous and awake, watching impressions of past deeds on the mind.

  • Associated Self: The Self in this state is called Taijasa, who is the universal person in his mental nature, conscious only of dreams and enjoying the subtle impressions of past actions (samskaras). Taijasa is subtle in nature, based on the mind's capacity to imagine, and located inside the mind. Hiranyagarbha is the macrocosmic counterpart to Taijasa.

  • Nature of Experience: While physical barriers are removed, allowing the Atman to imagine and perform things unthinkable in the waking state, the pure consciousness still does not find peace due to being buffeted by emotions and Vasanas (latent impressions). Dreams are also described as the effect of Avidya, desire, and karma, with the Self witnessing their results while remaining dissociated from causes and effects. The phenomenal world can be looked upon as a dream by those who have reached the fourth stage of Yoga, after nescience dwindles.

  • Relation to Suffering: Dream objects, like waking objects, arise from erroneous awareness combined with non-awareness of the truth that nothing exists externally. This state is also considered an example for punarjanma (the cycle of rebirth).

Sushupti (Deep Sleep State):

  • Description and Engagement: In deep sleep, the external and internal organs of sense and action cease activity, and there is an absence of differentiated knowledge. The mind is the primary instrument, and the Jiva plunges into ignorance (avidya) to enjoy a state of its own bliss. All differentiating names and forms resolve into an unmanifest (potential) state, known as Maya or Karanasariram (causal body).

  • Associated Self: The Self in deep sleep is called Prajna, described as dense with consciousness, undifferentiated, and a mass of mere consciousness that abounds in bliss. Prajna is located in the space inside the heart. Ishwar (God) is the macrocosmic counterpart to Prajna. Prajna knows neither himself nor others, nor truth nor untruth.

  • Nature of Experience: The Original Consciousness (Atman) continues to be present, and deep sleep reveals the Atman's nature as non-dual (advaitattvam), eternally conscious (caitanya nityatvaṃ), and inherently blissful (ānanda svarūpatvaṃ). It is the most enjoyable state, a "bimbhananda" or original bliss, which is always available for claiming.

  • Relation to Suffering: While deep sleep is a state of bliss, it is considered a temporary liberation (temporary moksha) because desires and unfulfilled impulses lie latent as a "thick veil of ignorance" (Avidya), which prevents complete knowledge and causes one to wake up again. This ignorance is the "seed of sleeping and waking awareness" that needs to be burned away by Self-knowledge.

How These States Relate to the Understanding of the Mind

The understanding of these three states is inextricably linked to the nature and function of the mind (manas):

  • Mind as Instrument: The mind is the central organ through which the Jiva experiences the world in the waking state and creates the internal universe in dreams. In deep sleep, the mind (along with other organs) ceases activity.

  • Mind as Cause of Bondage and Liberation: The mind is "the cause of men's bondage and liberation". An impure mind, driven by desires for sense-objects, leads to bondage, while a mind dissociated from such desires tends towards liberation. Latent impressions (vasanas) and mental constructions (sankalpas) are the seeds of the mind's activity and bondage.

  • Mind's Role in Duality: The mind (specifically manas, the sensory mind, and buddhi, the intellect) is crucial in creating and experiencing the illusion of duality. It is part of the subtle body, a finer form of matter that generates thoughts and perceptions.

  • Purification and Stillness of Mind: To attain higher states, the mind and senses must be purified, repolarized, and transformed. Meditation requires the mind to be "as still as a mirror" to perceive subtle states of awareness. Ultimately, the aim is for the mind to reach a "mindless state" or quiescence (prashanta vrittikam chittam), where all mental fluctuations and agitations cease.

How This Understanding Is Crucial for the Path to Liberation (Samadhi)

The Vedantic path to liberation (moksha) is fundamentally about transcending the limitations of these three states and realizing one's true nature, which is the Turiya (the Fourth) state. This understanding is crucial for several reasons:

Identifying the Illusion: By analyzing Jagrat, Swapna, and Sushupti, one realizes that the experiences within these states, including the perceived distinctions and sufferings, are ultimately illusory or temporary manifestations superimposed on the true Self. The Self remains the self-luminous, non-attached Witness throughout all states.

The Goal of Samadhi:

  1. Samadhi is the ultimate state of superconsciousness where Absoluteness is experienced with all-knowledge and joy. It represents the union of the individual self (Jivatma) and the Supreme Self (Paramatman), free from the triad of knower, known, and knowledge.

  2. It is a state of profound silence or trance where the cessation of thought processes leads to the annihilation of the mind and the dissolution of individuality, resulting in supreme and endless bliss.

  3. There are two main types of Samadhi: Savikalpa Samadhi (with perceived distinctions between meditator, meditated, and meditation, but recognized as illusionary) and Nirvikalpa Samadhi (free from all distinctions, where the ego vanishes and there is pure "being" Brahman, not just "knowing" it).

  4. While Samadhi is the experience of liberation, true Self-knowledge (Jnana or Vidya) does not occur in Samadhi itself, but rather in the waking state through intellectual inquiry and reflection, as Samadhi resolves all distinctions, including knowledge itself.

The Path to Knowledge and Liberation:

  1. Avidya (nescience/ignorance) is the bondage of the soul, identified as the egoism that causes the master of Self to look upon the body and other non-Self entities as Itself. The cessation of this egoism is Moksha.

  2. Vidya (knowledge) is what completely turns back this egoism. It is the "absence of ignorance" and "self-illuminated" like the sun.

  3. Liberation (moksha) results from inquiry. It is attained through a disciplined approach of hearing (Shravana) of Vedantic scriptures from a qualified guru, reflection (Manana) to gain intellectual clarity and resolve doubts, and meditation (Nididhyasana) for one-pointed concentration on reality to directly experience the unity of Atman and Brahman.

  4. This knowledge (or concentration leading to knowledge) dissolves "crores of deeds accumulated in the course of beginningless transmigratory existence," eradicating the roots of good and evil karma.

  5. The understanding that "I am Brahman" (Aham Brahmasmi) and "Thou art That" (Tattvamasi) is key to this realization, involving rejecting the limiting adjuncts (Maya and Avidya) of the Supreme Self (God) and the individual Jiva.

  6. The goal is to move from the temporary peace of Sushupti, which still contains the seeds of future experience, to the permanent, attributeless, non-dual bliss of the Turiya state, which is synonymous with liberation. This can be Jivanmukti (liberation while living, like King Janak, where one remains detached internally while engaged externally) and ultimately Videhamukti (disembodied liberation after the body is consumed by time).


  1. Elaborate on the "Fourfold Means to Liberation" (Sadhana Chatushtaya). Explain how the cultivation of these virtues and the practice of discrimination and renunciation prepare an individual for the realization of Brahman.

The path to the realization of Brahman and ultimately liberation (moksha) in Vedantic thought is multifaceted, emphasizing internal transformation over mere external ritual. A crucial preparatory stage for this profound realization is the cultivation of the Fourfold Means to Liberation, or Sadhana Chatushtaya. These means are essential for purifying the mind and making it capable of grasping the ultimate truth.

The four components of Sadhana Chatushtaya are:

  1. Discrimination between the Eternal and the Non-eternal (Nitya-anitya-vastu-viveka):

    • This is the ability to distinguish between what is permanent, unchanging, and real (Brahman/Self) and what is transient, perishable, and illusory (the phenomenal world).

    • The sources emphasize that Brahman alone is Reality, and the entire world is nothing but name and form (nāma-rūpa). This world is considered an illusion (mithya).

    • Through this discrimination, one understands that "I" the experiencer of the nāma-rūpa is none other than that Reality. If one can claim "That Brahman I am" (Aham Brahmasmi), they are liberated immediately.

    • This continuous inquiry is highlighted as essential, leading to liberation.

  2. Non-attachment to the Enjoyment of Fruits of Action, Here or Hereafter (Iha-amutra-artha-phala-vairagya):

    • This means developing detachment from desires for all temporary pleasures, whether in this world or in heavenly realms.

    • The sources consistently state that desire is the root cause of suffering and bondage. Actions driven by desire lead to further karma and rebirth (samsara).

    • Vairagya (non-attachment or dispassion) helps to attenuate desires and latent impressions (vasanas), which are the seeds of the mind's activity and bondage.

    • True renunciation means ceasing to hanker after the threefold objects of desire (sons, wealth, and worlds) which lead to worlds that are not the Self.

  3. The Six Virtues (Shamadi Shatka Sampatti):

    • These are internal disciplines that harmonize, strengthen, and refine the mind. They are considered direct aids to Self-knowledge.

    • Tranquility (Shama): Control of the inner senses or mind. This involves ceasing mental modifications and remaining without agitation.

    • Restraint (Dama): Control of the outer sense organs. This includes controlling the senses like the good horses of a driver.

    • Renunciation/Withdrawal (Uparati): This can be understood as giving up all actions, or withdrawing from all objects of sense and outward activity. It is a natural outcome of Self-realization, but also a practice for seekers.

    • Forbearance (Titiksha): Patient endurance of the pairs of opposites (like heat and cold, pleasure and pain). It is a form of austerity (tapas).

    • Concentration (Samadhana): One-pointedness of mind on the reality. It involves fixing the mind on Brahman, leading to stillness.

    • Faith (Shraddha): Devotion and conviction in the sayings of the scriptures and the teacher. This is crucial as the Vedas are considered trustworthy and speak the truth as the word of God.

  4. Intense Desire for Liberation (Mumukshutva):

    • This is a strong yearning to be free from the cycle of birth and death (samsara).

    • A person with this intense desire seeks refuge in a spiritual instructor to cross mundane existence. This desire is essential for the sadhaka (spiritual practitioner).

Cultivation of Virtues and the Role of Renunciation

The cultivation of these virtues and the practice of discrimination and renunciation are deeply interconnected and serve as the preparatory foundation for Brahman realization:

  • Purification of Mind: The Sadhana Chatushtaya are primarily aimed at purifying the mind (chitta). A pure mind, detached from desires, is essential for Self-knowledge.

  • Controlling the Mind: The mind is explicitly stated as the cause of both bondage and liberation. An impure mind, driven by desires for sense-objects, leads to bondage, while a mind free from such desires tends toward liberation. The goal is to control the mind until it reaches quiescence (prashanta vrittikam chittam).

  • Transcendence of Duality: Ignorance (avidya) is the root cause of perceiving duality, and it is illusory knowledge. These practices help in realizing that the Self is non-dual, pure, and beyond all distinctions. The liberated individual abandons the conception of "I" (ego) and considers all existence as Atman.

  • Role of Renunciation (Sannyasa): Renunciation is integral to the path of liberation, and it is seen as a means to true knowledge (jnana).

    • It involves giving up all duties and desires. This includes renouncing the desire for sons, wealth, and worlds.

    • The true sacred thread of a renouncer is the conviction "I am the Self alone," and deep absorption in meditation is their tuft.

    • Sannyasa provides special facilities for unhampered realization. While some great souls like King Janaka can be jivanmuktas (liberated while living) as householders, Yajnavalkya chose sannyasa for unobstructed realization.

    • The sources discuss different types of renunciation (e.g., krama sannyasa for those who transition through all stages of life, or direct renunciation like brahmacharya to sannyasa for those with intense detachment).

    • The sannyasin aims to remain free from "mine-ness" (nirmamah) by abandoning faults like passion, anger, pride, greed, and delusion, and viewing all equally.

Relation to Samadhi (Ultimate Goal)

The cultivation of these means directly supports the process of realizing Brahman and attaining Samadhi:

  • Path to Self-knowledge (Jnana): Self-knowledge is the sole direct means to liberation. Other practices like karma yoga and upasana yoga are preparatory, leading to mind purification, but knowledge is the only route to liberation.

  • Hearing, Reflection, Meditation (Shravana, Manana, Nididhyasana): These are the three stages of Jnana Yoga sadhanas.

    • Hearing (Shravana): Thorough knowledge of Vedantic teaching, including logical steps and conclusions. It involves studying the Upanishads from a qualified teacher.

    • Reflection (Manana): Exclusive dwelling on the content of what has been heard, resolving doubts.

    • Meditation (Nididhyasana): Fixing the mind one-pointedly on the reality, which has been made doubtless through inquiry and reflection. This practice leads to Samadhi.

  • Samadhi: This is a state of concentration where mental modifications cease, and the mind raises itself to the nature of the Partless Brahman. In Samadhi, one transcends the distinctions of knower, known, and knowing. It is the state of thoroughly forgetting even the state of changelessness due to the cognition of the true nature of Brahman.

    • Samadhi dissolves accumulated karma.

    • There are two kinds: Savikalpa Samadhi, where distinctions are still somewhat perceived, and Nirvikalpa Samadhi, where all distinctions are absent, and the ego vanishes, leading to pure "being" Brahman.

    • The bliss of Brahman, previously recollected from the Sushupti state, is fully realized and enjoyed in this state.

  • Beyond the Three States (Turiya and Turyatita): The ultimate goal is to transcend the three conventional states (Jagrat, Swapna, Sushupti) and realize the Turiya (Fourth) state, which is the indestructible Brahman. The Turyatita is "beyond the fourth" when the four states are absent, signifying disembodied final beatitude. A Jivanmukta (liberated while living) remains as if unconscious of all happenings, even in waking and dreaming states, akin to deep sleep, because they know the Turiya as Brahman. This leads to permanent, attributeless, non-dual bliss, which is synonymous with liberation.

  • The Experience of Liberation: Liberation is the Self's manifesting its own nature, not taking on new characteristics. It is the realization of oneness with the infinite consciousness of Brahman, transcending all dualities. It is described as a state of eternal freedom, comprising Being, Intelligence, and Bliss, beyond qualities of the inner and sense organs and vital breaths. It is not an effect that can be produced, but rather the removal of avidya (ignorance). This "dementalisation" of the mind, where duality is no longer cognized, is the supreme status.

In essence, the Sadhana Chatushtaya provides the moral and mental foundation, purifying the individual and stilling the mind, to enable the profound Self-inquiry (Shravana, Manana, Nididhyasana) that culminates in the direct experience of Samadhi and the realization of one's true nature as Brahman, thereby attaining lasting liberation from suffering and rebirth.

  1. Drawing from Osho's discourses, discuss his perspective on the nature of desire, ego, and external validation. How do his modern interpretations of ancient Vedantic principles guide an individual towards inner transformation and freedom from suffering?


Glossary of Key Terms

  • Adhyasa (अध्यास): Superimposition; the erroneous attribution of the qualities of one thing to another, especially the mistaken identification of the Self (Atman) with the non-Self (body, mind).

  • Advaita Vedanta (अद्वैत वेदान्त): A non-dualistic school of Hindu philosophy, primarily based on the Upanishads, which asserts the ultimate oneness of the individual soul (Atman) with the ultimate reality (Brahman).

  • Akhanda (अखण्ड): Indivisible; refers to Brahman as being without parts or divisions.

  • Anandamaya Kosha (आनन्दमय कोश): The bliss sheath; the innermost and subtlest of the five sheaths (koshas) that veil the Atman, related to joy and spiritual bliss.

  • Annamaya Kosha (अन्नमय कोश): The food sheath; the outermost sheath, referring to the physical body, which is sustained by food.

  • Anallahaq (अनल्हक़): Arabic for "I am the Truth," a Sufi utterance that reflects the realization of oneness with the Divine, akin to the Vedantic "Aham Brahmasmi."

  • Anatman (अनात्मन): Non-self; anything that is not the true Self (Atman), including the body, mind, and the material world.

  • Atman (आत्मन): The individual Self or soul; the eternal, unchanging essence of a living being, ultimately identical with Brahman.

  • Avidya (अविद्या): Ignorance; spiritual ignorance that veils the true nature of reality (Brahman/Atman) and causes the perception of duality and suffering.

  • Brahman (ब्रह्मन्): The ultimate reality, the absolute, the supreme Spirit, from which all existence originates and into which it dissolves.

  • Brahmasutras (ब्रह्मसूत्र): A foundational text of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy, systematizing the teachings of the Upanishads.

  • Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (बृहदारण्यक उपनिषद्): One of the oldest and most important Upanishads, known for its philosophical dialogues, particularly those involving Yajnavalkya.

  • Chaarvaka (चार्वाक): A school of ancient Indian materialism and skepticism that rejects the concepts of soul, afterlife, and supernatural phenomena.

  • Chandogya Upanishad (छान्दोग्य उपनिषद्): A prominent Upanishad known for its philosophical teachings, including the famous Mahavakya "Tat Tvam Asi."

  • Chit (चित्): Consciousness; one of the three aspects of Satchidananda, referring to pure awareness.

  • Dama (दम): Control of the external senses; one of the sixfold virtues (shamadi-shatkasampatti) in the fourfold means of liberation.

  • Darshan (दर्शन): A philosophical system or viewpoint; literally "sight" or "vision," implying a way of seeing and understanding truth.

  • Dharana (धारणा): Concentration; focusing the mind on a single point, a step in Ashtanga Yoga.

  • Dhyana (ध्यान): Meditation; sustained concentration, leading to a deeper state of absorption.

  • Hiranayagarbha Stuti (हिरण्यगर्भ स्तुति): Hymns of praise to Hiranayagarbha, the cosmic golden egg or universal intellect, considered the first manifestation of Brahman.

  • Hosh (होश): Awareness; a state of conscious presence, often contrasted with unconsciousness in sleep.

  • Ihamutra Phala Bhoga Viraga (इहामुत्र फल भोग विराग): Renunciation of the fruits of actions, both in this world and the next; dispassion towards all worldly and heavenly pleasures.

  • Jagrat (जाग्रत): The waking state of consciousness, where the individual perceives the external world.

  • Jivanmukta (जीवन्मुक्त): A liberated soul; one who has attained self-realization and liberation (moksha) while still embodied in the physical world.

  • Jnana Marga (ज्ञान मार्ग): The path of knowledge; one of the principal paths to liberation in Hinduism, emphasizing intellectual understanding and realization of the true nature of reality.

  • Karma (कर्म): Action; the sum of a person's actions in this and previous states of existence, viewed as deciding their fate in future existences.

  • Kashaya (कषाय): Residual impressions or subtle desires that cause mental agitation, even in states of deep meditation.

  • Kumbhaka (कुम्भक): Retention of breath in Pranayama.

  • Kundalini Jagriti (कुण्डलिनी जाग्रति): The awakening of the coiled serpent power (Kundalini) at the base of the spine, leading to spiritual transformation.

  • Laya (लय): Dissolution or absorption; a state where the mind is absorbed or dissolved into a deeper state of consciousness.

  • Mahavakya (महावाक्य): "Great Utterances"; profound statements in the Upanishads that express the unity of Atman and Brahman, such as "Tat Tvam Asi."

  • Mananam (मननम्): Reflection or contemplation; the second step in the path of knowledge, where one intellectually analyzes and resolves doubts about the teachings.

  • Manomaya Kosha (मनोमय कोश): The mind sheath; the sheath of the mind, including thoughts, emotions, and desires.

  • Maya (माया): Cosmic illusion; the power of Brahman that brings the phenomenal world into existence and conceals the true nature of reality. It is neither real nor unreal.

  • Mithya (मिथ्या): Illusory or unreal; refers to something that appears to be real but is not ultimately so, like the world in Advaita Vedanta.

  • Moksha (मोक्ष): Liberation; freedom from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara), and the realization of one's true nature as Brahman.

  • Mumukshutva (मुमुक्षुत्व): Intense longing for liberation; one of the fourfold means to liberation.

  • Nididhyasanam (निदिध्यासनम्): Meditation or assimilation; the third and final step in the path of knowledge, leading to direct experience of the truth.

  • Nirguna (निर्गुण): Without attributes; describes Brahman as being beyond all qualities, distinctions, and forms.

  • Nirvikalpa Samadhi (निर्विकल्प समाधि): Samadhi without distinctions; a state of complete absorption in Brahman, where all mental modifications and dualities cease.

  • Nitya-Anitya Vastu Viveka (नित्य-अनित्य वस्तु विवेक): Discrimination between the eternal and the transient; the ability to discern permanent reality from impermanent phenomena.

  • Osho (ओशो): A modern spiritual teacher (also known as Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh) who offered discourses on various spiritual traditions, including the Upanishads.

  • Panchikarana (पञ्चीकरणम्): Quintuplication; the Vedantic process by which the five subtle elements (tanmatras) combine to form the gross elements (mahabhutas).

  • Paramatman (परमात्मन): The Supreme Soul; the ultimate, all-pervading reality, often used synonymously with Brahman.

  • Prana (प्राण): Life force or vital energy; often categorized into five types (prana, apana, samana, udana, vyana).

  • Pranamaya Kosha (प्राणमय कोश): The vital air sheath; the sheath composed of vital energy that animates the physical body.

  • Pranayama (प्राणायाम): Breath control techniques in Yoga, involving inhalation (puraka), exhalation (rechaka), and retention (kumbhaka).

  • Prarabdha Karma (प्रारब्ध कर्म): Destiny; the portion of sanchita karma that has begun to bear fruit in the current lifetime.

  • Pratyahara (प्रत्याहार): Withdrawal of the senses from their objects; a step in Ashtanga Yoga.

  • Puraka (पूरक): Inhalation in Pranayama.

  • Rajjusarpanyaya (रज्जुसर्पन्याय): The analogy of mistaking a rope for a snake; used to explain how the illusory world is superimposed on Brahman.

  • Rasa-asvadana (रसास्वादना): Enjoyment of bliss; clinging to the joy experienced in lower states of samadhi, which can hinder further progress.

  • Rechaka (रेचक): Exhalation in Pranayama.

  • Rishi (ऋषि): Seer or sage; a wise person who has realized ultimate truths.

  • Saccidānandam (सच्चिदानन्दम्): Existence-Consciousness-Bliss; the fundamental nature of Brahman and Atman in Advaita Vedanta.

  • Sadhana Chatushtaya (साधन चतुष्टय): The fourfold means to liberation; a set of four essential qualifications required for a student of Vedanta.

  • Samadhana (समाधान): Concentration or single-pointedness of mind; one of the sixfold virtues.

  • Samadhi (समाधि): Meditative absorption; a state of profound meditation leading to self-realization or union with the Divine.

  • Samsara (संसार): The cycle of birth, death, and rebirth; the transient, illusory world.

  • Sanchita Karma (संचित कर्म): Accumulated karma; the total store of karma from past lives that has not yet manifested.

  • Sat (सत्): Existence or Being; one of the three aspects of Satchidananda, referring to pure existence.

  • Satmya (सात्म्य): Compatibility or familiarity; becoming accustomed to something.

  • Savikalpa Samadhi (सविकल्प समाधि): Samadhi with distinctions; a state of meditative absorption where subtle mental modifications or distinctions still exist.

  • Shama (शम): Control of the mind; one of the sixfold virtues.

  • Shankara (शङ्कर): Adi Shankaracharya, a central philosopher of Advaita Vedanta.

  • Shravanam (श्रवणम्): Listening; the first step in the path of knowledge, involving hearing the Vedantic teachings from a guru.

  • Shraddha (श्रद्धा): Faith; one of the sixfold virtues, referring to unwavering belief in the guru and scriptures.

  • Shushupti (सुषुप्ति): Deep sleep state; a state of unconsciousness where the mind is at rest, characterized by peace but no awareness.

  • Smriti (स्मृति): Memory or traditional texts; often refers to auxiliary scriptures in Hinduism.

  • Swapna (स्वप्न): The dream state of consciousness, where the individual experiences a world created by their own mind.

  • Taittiriya Upanishad (तैत्तिरीय उपनिषद्): An Upanishad that describes the five sheaths (koshas) of the Atman.

  • Tamasa (तमस): Inertia or darkness; one of the three gunas (qualities of prakriti).

  • Tanmatras (तन्मात्र): Subtle elements; the five subtle elements (sound, touch, form, taste, smell) from which the gross elements (mahabhutas) arise.

  • Tat Tvam Asi (तत् त्वम् असि): "That Thou Art"; a Mahavakya asserting the identity of Atman and Brahman.

  • Tejas (तेजस्): Light, brilliance, or fire; often associated with the light of the intellect or the third state of consciousness.

  • Titiksha (तितिक्षा): Endurance; one of the sixfold virtues, referring to the ability to bear dualities (e.g., heat and cold, pleasure and pain) with equanimity.

  • Turiya (तुरीय): The fourth state of consciousness; the transcendent state beyond waking, dreaming, and deep sleep, which is the true nature of the Self.

  • Uparati (उपरति): Cessation of external activities or withdrawal; one of the sixfold virtues, referring to detachment from sense objects.

  • Vairagya (वैराग्य): Dispassion or renunciation; detachment from worldly desires and attachments.

  • Vedantasara (वेदान्तसार): A text by Sadananda Saraswati that provides a concise summary of Advaita Vedanta.

  • Vijnanamaya Kosha (विज्ञानमय कोश): The intellect sheath; the sheath of intellect and discrimination.

  • Vikshepa (विक्षेप): Mental agitation or distraction; a state where the mind is scattered among various objects, preventing concentration.

  • Vikalpa (विकल्प): Conceptualization, doubt, or imagination; the mind's tendency to create distinctions and fantasies.

  • Vishaya (विषय): Object; an object of perception or experience.

  • Viveka (विवेक): Discrimination; the ability to distinguish between the real and the unreal, the permanent and the impermanent.

  • Yajnavalkya (याज्ञवल्क्य): A prominent sage in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, known for his profound philosophical teachings.

  • Yama (यम): Restraints; the first limb of Ashtanga Yoga, comprising moral disciplines like non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, celibacy, and non-possessiveness.


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